When the Great War broke out in August 1914, the soldiers of the belligerent nations marched into battle carrying broadly similar weapons: modern bolt-action, magazine-fed rifles firing full-powered cartridges. British Empire troops carried the 1903 Rifle No.1 Mk.III AKA the Short Magazine Lee Enfield or SMLE; the Germans the Gewehr 1898, the Austro-Hungarians the Mannlicher M95, the Russians the 1891 Mosin-Nagant, and so on. Yet when it came to infantry weapons, one nation stood out…and not in a good way: despite having one of the largest and most modern armies in the world, the French armed its soldiers with a long, heavy, and awkward-to-use rifle some three decades out of date. Ironically, when first introduced, this rifle was state-of-the-art, a groundbreaking piece of military technology that launched a revolution in firearms design. But like many technological pioneers, the French military fell victim to its own ingenuity, its innovative weapon being swiftly copied and vastly improved upon by rival nations until its original developers found themselves hopelessly left behind. This is the story of the Model 1886 Lebel, the forgotten rifle that changed warfare forever. Since their introduction around the 13th Century C.E., for nearly a millennium firearms - whether in the form of cannons, mortars, or half-portable muskets and pistols - were exclusively powered by a single substance: black gunpowder. Developed around the 9th Century in China, black gunpowder is composed of just three ingredients: charcoal, sulphur, and sodium or potassium nitrate - the latter traditionally known as “saltpetre.” When heated, saltpetre decomposes to produce oxygen, which catalyzes the combustion of the charcoal and sulphur to produce deflagration, a rapid burning that produces a large volume of hot, high-pressure gas that, if adequately contained, can be used to propel a projectile down a gun barrel or to burst artillery shells, grenades, mines, and other explosive weapons. Yet despite being the only practical propellant and explosive known to humanity for over a thousand years, gunpowder suffered from a number of serious drawbacks. For one thing, for many centuries one of its key ingredients, saltpetre, was relatively rare and difficult to obtain. In nature, saltpetre mainly occurs in the form of Nitratine, a mineral deposit formed by the evaporation of ancient lakes and found in arid regions such as Egypt, South Africa, Peru, and Chile. Prized not only as an ingredient in gunpowder but also a potent agricultural fertilizer, Nitratine has long been a highly coveted strategic resource, with two large-scale military conflicts - the 1480-1510 Saltpetre War and the 1879-1884 War of the Pacific - even being fought over large Nitratine deposits in Central and South America. The only other economical source of saltpetre was from certain caves as well as barns and stables, where the compound naturally crystallized from the manure or urine of farm animals like cows and sheep and the droppings of birds and bats AKA guano. Author: Gilles Messier Host/Editor: Daven Hiskey Sponsor: Incogni - Use code BRAINFOOD and get 60% off an annual plan using the link ⁠https://incogni.com/brainfood Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices