Music Welcome to Snewscast, the podcast designed to help you fall asleep. Find us at snewscast.com and if you enjoy our show, please share us with a friend. This episode is brought to you by Softly Rounding Hills. Tonight, we'll read from Lessons in Chalk Modeling, the new method of map drawing, written by Ida Kassa Hefferen and in 1900. At the turn of the 20th century, education was undergoing rapid changes. Teachers saw creative ways to engage students in subjects that were often taught by road memorization. Geography, in particular, was considered a cornerstone of a well-rounded education, yet it was sometimes reduced to reciting capitals and drawing borders. Heference work introduced a tactile and visual method known as chalk modeling in which teachers could draw raised relief maps directly on the blackboard to show mountains, rivers, and valleys in a more dynamic way. Chalk modeling made classrooms more interactive, helping students imagine landscapes and physical features in three dimensions rather than flat diagrams. It reflected the broader educational trend

toward learning by doing a movement championed by reformers,

such as John Dewey.

This method not only made lessons more engaging,

but also encouraged observation and critical thinking.

Skills at the heart of geography itself.

Let's get cozy. Close your eyes. Relax your body into the softness of your bed. Now take a few deep breathss The fundamental object in the study of geography as we understand it is to acquire mental images of the present appearance of the Earth's surface. structure, the rocky material of which it is composed, and the causes and effects of its changes as a preparation for the home of organic life. It is a study of the earth as a material basis for the evolution of man and the development of civilization. It leads up to a search for the laws and workings of the creative forces, forces relating to our planet and to the sun, the central source of light and heat. This study has a different meaning to different persons. To one, it means the study of all that lies between the covers of a book, or memorizing other people's sayings. To another, it means connected information regarding the condition of man's life on this planet. Again, geography is a description of the Earth's surface, or anything that affects or is affected by it. An ability to recognize in present environment that which leads to an understanding of geographical conditions in general is much to be desired and is the aim of the teacher of the present day. Geologists tell us that the same processes are going on now that have ever been in operation in the fitting of the earth for the habitation of man. That these changes are taking place is implied in the very fact that we are studying the earth's present appearance. The study of the history of these changes, and of the nature of the earthy material as shown in rock and soil and in vegetation, and of the influence of heat, light, air, and moisture means the study of all the natural sciences, not as special isolated studies, but bound together in one great hole. So closely are they related, merging into and impinging upon each other as they do, that there seems to be no place or line of separation between them. The larger part of the surface of the earth, nearly three-fourths, is covered with water, and the action of this mighty agent under the influence of that great, dynamic force and life-giving energy, heat, opens an immense field for investigation. combined influences constitute the study of the environment of all organic life. And, knowing these in a given case, we get an approximate idea of the stage of development. The development of man, the highest type of organic life, depends largely upon structural, climatic, vegetable, and animal environment. To know these is to understand his habits of life, his reasons for choice of homes, and to judge of his probable advancement and civilization. The powerful influence which the physical features of the Earth's surface have exerted in shaping the current of historical events can hardly be realized until thoughtful investigation of the subject has been made.

The knowledge of geographical conditions, as climate, mountains, valleys, rivers and seas, with vegetable and animal life, gives us the theater of action for events in history. As the mere existence of mountain range, desert, sea or river may be essentially the influence which has led to the growth or downfall of empires, it is clearly seen that a sound knowledge of structural geography is absolutely necessary for all intelligence study of history. No general relation of important occurrences can be traced without it. Nearly, if not equally necessary, is it in the study of literature? In order to properly appreciate the works of our best writers, both of pros and poetry, and acquaintance with nature, a scientific and geographical knowledge, local and general, is very essential. It forms a basis for the correct understanding of books, Since the best writers and thinkers of all ages have been students of nature. Their writings are filled with lessons and illustrations, as well as generalizations drawn from close observations of her methods. then, a knowledge of structural geography is requisite to the true understanding of man's relation to man and the world around him, it becomes important that the subject be presented in such a manner as to attract and hold the interest of the pupil. And properly presented, there can be nothing more interesting than the study of His immediate environment, that which touches Him in His every day experience. This study of His immediate environment is essential to the forming of mental images, of areas and surface forms outside and beyond his sense grasp, and to a comprehension of the structure and surface contour of the world at large. Such mental images, being fundamentally a necessity to the delineation of adequate structural maps of the whole or any part of the Earth's surface. The study of geography, which in the past consisted mainly in the memorizing of meaningless names with little or no exercise of the reasoning faculties or opportunities for making generalizations through acts of comparison and inference has been superseded by instruction of a more rational order. We have learned that to memorize names and locations of mountains, rivers, and lakes without seeing their relation to a whole, or to make only superficial observations of extended areas of land, results merely in indefinite mental impressions, leaving out the very basis of all concise and clearly defined geographical knowledge. To the end that definite mental images may be acquired, field excursions under the direction of competent leaders are now advocated, and when entered upon with an intelligent purpose are held to be indispensable factors in the correct study of geography. Under these conditions, the intelligent purpose and the competent leader,

the people who visit a lake is likely to have a more adequate mental image of old ocean than one who has never seen a lake or other large body of water. One who has seen low hills with their outcropping rock, and the action of small streams upon them, will have a better idea of what mountains and rivers may be. In the new education, the pupils are thus in the field, brought face to face with nature. Through these lessons the powers of the imagination are quickened and strengthened by the continual observation of surface forms, the true basis for all attempts to image the structure of the Earth. are made at every step of the way as to the history of the physical features

observed, and the nature of the forces that have acted upon them to shape and distribute. and forms of land are constantly being compared as to shape, size, width, length and height, and simple generalizations formed from direct observations are combined with other generalizations to form those that are higher or more comprehensive.

This is but a brief suggestion of the part the field lesson bears to education in general. In the particular study of geography, it must be born in mind that no essential knowledge can be gained except through close observation of the Earth's surface forms. As the true teacher of science in his classes in botany or zoology leads his pupils to an individual study of plants and animals, and also to a study of these in their surroundings, their social relations, so also the student of geography goes directly to nature for all fundamental knowledge pertaining to the subject. Field lessons, though conducted mainly as contributed to the student's fund of knowledge, are also a source of pleasure, and may be made the foundation of a more helpful love for and delightful companionship with nature. They are not alone a mine of knowledge, but also a perfect wellspring of inspiration. In every stream, plain and valley, new beauties of form and color are continually presenting themselves. Variant hints of landscape vistas, drifting cloud masses, softly rounding hills, majestic mountain forms, the play of sunlight and shadow all make subtle appeal. Entering into harmony with creation, we are led into harmony with its source. combined all the wealth of color, warmth of sunlight, song of birds, hum of insects, and breath of growing things, conspire to the unfoldment of the being on all the planes of life's expression, for the first and controlling impulse is toward expression.

Expression on the physical, mental, and emotional planes in fulfilment of the law of growth for expression is a necessity to growth. Expression. Geography has been said to be an analytical study of the Earth's surface, or the study of the separate landscape elements, such as form, color, and organic structure. Geography is emphatically a study of form, the forms of the Earth's surface features, each to be studied in relation to other and contrasting forms, as well as in relation to their environment. Upon the pupils return from the field, the forms and areas observed may be modeled in sand sketch sketched on paper, or chalk modeled on the blackboard. Maps may be drawn of the areas studied, and sketches may be made in color of stretches of different soils and verger, together with the atmospheric effects observed. Tints of sea, sky and cloud, color and shades of rock and foliage are all speaking in tones which the child may interpret and render intelligible to others through the medium of brush and paints. It is of great importance to his future growth that the student acquire the habit of freely expressing himself through the art modes of modeling, painting and drawing. Since much of his mental power depends upon such expression, for by holding in mind, while in the act of expression, the images acquired through observation, more of the details of the object or scene as well as the generalities are recalled. thus reacts upon self, causing the mental picture to be intensified, and expression to become more definite and complete. No other means are so adequate to this end. I.e., the forming of distinct images in the mind, unless it may be the giving of oral and written

descriptions. These, of course, should be demanded of the people as well. By this demand, the people seize the necessity of closer observation and investigation that he may give a fuller and more truthful expression, and with careful leading he becomes a critic of his own thought and skill, which is a step pre-eminently educative. It may not be possible for all students to make a study of the whole of a river or broke basin. Yet it may be done by sections, getting a general idea of the slope of the riverbed, water parting, slope and valley. The action of the forces of nature may also be seen in the changes now going on in the different sections. The cutting back of the stream at its source. It's a roting power. It's carrying power. And it's building or leveling power. If it is not possible to take the children to the field for nature study, they may find fruitful sources of study without. City Schools Nearly every schoolhouse has some surroundings that may be studied to advantage, except those in closely built city streets. But even in such cases there is always the work of rain, heat, frost and wind to study, as well as insect life. The drifting of sand and snow, the frost on the window-pains, the forming of ice around doors and windows, and the effect of heat in its melting, raindrops, clouds, puddles of water in the slight depressions of sills and walks with tiny streams flowing therefrom are all to be observed. Where did the dirt on the windows and sills come from, especially after some snowstorm? Tiny seeds in the corners where the winds have left them. Insects in the spring, where did they come from? Where were they all winter? These and many other hints might be given for such study. The country furnishes a rich field for investigation. Around every building and in many localities that can be easily reached, most of the types of the earth's surface may be found. Care must be taken that they are considered as types, or the pupil might answer the question, how high are mountains, as the child did who said in reply, 2 inches high. In the lower grades of school, much of the geography work should be the direct lesson in the field, followed by lessons in school. The higher grades also should continue the frequent field excursions which are begun in the lower. Visits may be made to the hills, groves, lakes and ponds of the vicinity, and upon returning to the schoolroom, these and surrounding areas may be modeled in sand or clay, painted in watercolor or drawn on the blackboard. Brook basins may be studied as presenting many if not all of the features of the river basins. Maps may also be made of these areas, as well as detailed drawings of special features. As has been said, the pupil should model and draw continually in connection with or after every lesson in the field. It is the very best method by which to attain mental growth and should of course be the genuine expression of his own mental images gained through observation. He should model and draw all surface features or areas seen in his excursions. He may model in sand, putty, or clay, maps of the areas of the school yard, farms or parks in the vicinity, or chalk model them, then indicate upon them the boundaries of any subdivisions they may have such as fields, clumps of trees, houses, or other buildings. Imaginary areas Let the pupil also sketch on the blackboard, imaginary scenes, and typical features of other areas and countries under the same or contrasting climatic and other conditions. Always questioning as he draws his mental picture, if of a river, for instance, what is the cause of its rapidity, what its probable depth and effect on the soil? Why it cuts here or builds there? And why the slopes back of it are terraced as they are? If he represents islands, he should ask himself the question why they are rocky or alluvial. i.E. what they're origin and never represent in any expression that which is contradictory or so untrue to nature. Landscapes typical of the different zones of temperature, showing characteristic structure, vegetation, homes, Hab, and occupations of inhabitants may be drawn. Maps also of these areas and those adjoining may be chalk-modeled. As the mind becomes stored with separate images acquired through actual observation of areas of the Earth's surface. Gradually, by the combining and blending of these, a new mental image, a comprehensive picture is formed, corresponding in the main to the general features of the whole Earth, If its uplifted masses and lower planes, its natural divisions of continents, seas and oceans, its atmospheric and climatic conditions. If the habit has been formed of chalk modeling imaginary areas, as well as those within the sense grasp, it will be a comparatively easy matter to chalk model a map of the whole continent. On this, the student may mark the boundaries of all political divisions as he studies them and locate the important cities and places of interest. Practical Suggestions Before we leave the subject of field lessons, some practical suggestions in regard to them are here offered. Actual observations may be made on the action and effects of rivers, underground water, rain, wind, heat and frost. The effects of glacial action and the eruptive forces of nature may also be seen in places. To study river action, it is not necessary to visit a river, if there be none near, any small stream of water, any tiny rivulet beside the roadway tells its story of wearing and building, its vertical cutting and its swinging from side to side. It has its miniature valley, its basin and water parting, and possibly a delta at its mouth. It may also have its cascade or waterfall. The wearing of rock through the influence of rain, frost and heat may be seen in any stone building, fence or pavement. Effects of heat and moisture on vegetation as influencing the growth of plants and trees should be noticed. The growth of shrubs and trees during a dry season can be measured and compared with that of wet seasons. The observer should mark the effect of vegetation in the action of rain on a grassy slope. How the grass protects the soil, preventing it from being washed away, and how, by holding back the water so that it flows more slowly, it is less destructive in its action. To add to the interest, the pupil may be led to imagine the effects upon climate and streams of the denuding of large areas of their forests, also how rock sculpturing in the forming of gorges and canyons, etc., would be modified by the volume and force of streams. Observation should also be made on the making of soils, their constituents, and relative proportions of loam, sand, gravel, and clay, in the relation of these two plants and animal life. The part that the common earthworm bears, and constantly uniting, enriching, and otherwise preparing the soils for the support of vegetable life, may be seen in many areas. It has been computed that in one year several tons of soil are brought up and distributed by them within an area of an acre of land. A study made of the action of underground water, as shown in common and intermittent springs, would be full of interesting suggestions. The effects of glaciers may be seen in part and their tremendous influence imagined by the presence of the countless numbers of striated boulders, pieces of rock action. the piling of sand on the seashore, the drifting of snow, or the whirling of dust in the street illustrate this. The observer may notice where the dust blown from the street has choked and buried the grasses and weeds beside it, and imagine what might be the fate of forests in the path of encroaching sand dunes. Peoples may be told of the dunes which travel great distances, that one way by which this is known is by noting trees and houses that were once back of the traveling sand hills and are now in front of them. Also tell of the sights of ancient cities long-buried buried and now being excavated and brought to light

again. The ability to image the continent or any part of it from the reading of pictures is of great importance. It is an inexpressible aid to the imagination in the study of areas that lie outside of the sense-grasp. Good pictures should be chosen. showing several different views of the same section of country.

Pictures that are a truthful representation of both detail and generalities. Yn yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n y