Welcome to a history of Europe Key Battles, the Ford of Toledo and 1085, part two.

Last week I talked about the history of Spain until the mid-10th century.

The dominant power on the Iberian Peninsula was Al-Andylus, the caliphate of Cordova,

and this period was its golden age.

In January 929, the Emir Abdel Rahman III proclaimed himself Caliph.

The Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad was far away and in no position to take any action against the upstart, who was now, at least in theory, a rival claimant to be

the leader of the Muslim world.

Abd al-Roman had little interest, though, in extending his power beyond Iberia and the shoreline

of Africa immediately opposite in today's Morocco.

Within the peninsula, he was mostly successful at asserting his authority,

putting down rebellions in the South, in keeping in check the small Christian kingdoms in the North,

despite the occasional minor setback.

The 10th century in Muslim Spain was characterised by an expansion of trade and culture,

and a great flourishing of arts, architecture and sciences.

The population grew, in part thanks to improvements in agriculture, which have been described as a green revolution.

The Arabs and Berbers introduced better systems of irrigation, with new technologies such as water wheels, powered either by the flow of water itself or by animals.

This enabled the successful introduction and wider use of many new crops, such as rice, sugar cane,

cotton, oranges, lemons, bananas, pomegranates, watermelons, artichokes and aubergines. Figs were cultivated

as a cash crop in Al-Andalus and sold as far filled as Baghdad.

These advances in agriculture reduced the likelihood of famine and improved people's health, bringing great economic and social benefits.

Demographic growth and increased agricultural productivity meant that the surplus rural population migrated into towns,

leading to a flourishing of urban life and manufacturing.

...